Engage In Personal Development Essay

Understand what is required for competence in own work role 1. Describe the duties and responsibilities of own work role To assist service user or individual in the care home with everyday tasks such as washing, toileting, dressing, eating, drinking. To assist with mobility and disability. To help in the promotion of mental and physical activity through talking and reading with them, encourage them to do what they can do in order to promote their independents. Follow policies and procedure at all times and report any changes to service user’s health or circumstances. 2. Explain expectations about own work role as expressed in relevant standards. There are two main standards that I am expected to be able to comply with. The National Minimum standards The purpose of these standards is set to out the national minimum training standards for health care support workers and adult social care workers in Wales. These standards define the minimum you should know, irrespective of your individual work role. Often you will gain knowledge during a period of induction in the first weeks or months of your employment. While meeting these minimum standards is not the same as being competent in your role, they do provide the foundation for safe and effective practice. The standards do not seek to set out competences for workers, but correspond to the underpinning knowledge within the core competences for healthcare support workers and adult social care workers. The National Occupational standards These apply across the whole UK, and explain what you need to know and be able to do in order to work effectively in social care. Should be able to  demonstrate competence in these areas that’s why the management in our nursing home are making sure we have enough training and support in order to be more competence in our job. Outcome 2 Be able to reflect on practice 1. Explain the importance of reflective practice in continuously improving the quality of service provided. Reflective practice is the process that enables individuals to achieve better understanding of themselves, their understanding, their skills, competencies and their workplace practices in general. Reflective practice allows us to reflect on our actions and experiences so that we can learn from them and adapt our behavior accordingly. Reflective practice can be uncomfortable as it challenges our own assumptions about ourselves however it is vital for improving the quality of the service we provide. Reflective practice will make us more self-aware, this will raise our own awareness of others and increase sensitivity to their needs and perception of how we care for them. 3. Describe how own values, belief systems and experiences may affect working practice Personal values and beliefs are an important part of personal growth and happiness. As human beings, we all have our own values, beliefs and attitudes that we have developed throughout the course of our lives. Our families, friends, community and the experiences we have had, all contribute to our sense of pride and how we care for each other. Our experiences also affect how we value the importance of family and friendships. Religious beliefs affect how we feel about right and wrong. Significant or unexpected life events such as death of love ones impact on what we value as being important. All people are entitled to their own point of view, their own values and beliefs, but they must never force those values and beliefs onto others. We must always take great care to treat all service user and all individuals equally. Our values and beliefs affect the quality of our work and all interpersonal relationships. Outcome 3Be able to evaluate own performance 1. Evaluate own knowledge, performance and understanding against relevant standards. My knowledge and performance follows the relevant standards such as every member of staff requires crb check to ensure they are meeting the standards of the CSSIW by not obtaining any criminal convictions to ensure resident or service user are not put at any risk. Manual handling standards have to be met by using hoists, slings and slide sheets with the residents who require this and making sure they are used correctly because it will cause danger and harm to the service users. Other standards that have to be followed are infection control, we have to maintain cleanliness in the home and prevent all cross contamination in the home. Outcome 4Be able to agree a personal development plan 1. Identify sources of support for planning and reviewing own development There are many sources of support that you can access and many different ways you can help yourself. The appraisal or supervision system in my workplace can be a good starting point. This will help me identify areas of my practice that’s needs to be improve and develop. Supervision gives you a good opportunity to use the experience and knowledge of your supervisor to help you plan how to move forward to your practice. All the trainings provided by the management of the home are effective support for me by gaining knowledge so that I can use as my guide to develop and improves my job role as a carer and as individual as well. Outcome 5Be able to use learning opportunities and reflective practice to contribute to personal development 1. Evaluate how learning activities have affected practice. I attended a course on confidentiality by my employer. The covered areas such as confidentiality policies and when to seek help for confidentiality matter. The aim of the course was to enhance and update staff knowledge on the  intricacies of confidentiality and when to break confidentiality. This course was very interesting, and learned new things that I was not aware of. We had given a scenario in our training, when a service user confided to you and told you a staff has abused but the service user don’t want you tell anyone and keep it secret. From I was taught in the course that confidentiality should be broken when there is a possibility of danger to the service use. So from that course it gave me knowledge and help me in decision making as I now feel confident that I am following correct procedure in such events. 3.Show how to record progress in relation to personal development To record my progress I would make a grid for my goals and work towards a completion date for each goal as a care assistant. You have to identify skill and knowledge would like to improve. Here is an example: 1.Issue 2.What do I want to achieve? 3.How am I going to achieve this? 4.Comments 5.Target date 6.Colleague feedback 7.etc. Once you have completed your plan, you can identify the areas on which you need to concentrate. You should set some goals and targets. And your supervisor should be able to help you ensure they are realistic. This is a personal development programme in order to reflect not only the objectives and the job roles needs to develop and improve.

Case Study Of Elektra Products, Inc. Essay

The Elektra Products Inc has faced the problem: market share was declining in competition of foreign and domestic area; new products ideas were few and far; morale was low at all time and employees were actively seeking new jobs. Because they are disenchanted by the current culture and they may see management as untrusted in their abilities. Barbara Russel, a manufacturing vice president has been assigned by Martin Griffin, Elektra’s new CEO who very recently made the challenge: â€Å"As we face increasing competition, we need new ideas, new energy, new sprit to make this company great. An the source for this change is you – each of you†, to lead a team which will implement a plan to change management style to a decentralized organization than encourage employee empowerment in management processing. Ms Russell forms an active team that work hard to achieve management change. And Ms Russell would allow employees to make decision suitable at their positions. When the Mr Griffin is not participate in meeting the department heads’ responses are not workable. The resistance is happen at the middle level management when implementation is done. In answering first sub-question of the question no 1 of â€Å"How might top management have done a better job changing Elektra products into a new kind of organization?†, we would like to express that top management could have included the middle and lower level managers,  and the employees in the teams. The team should have received instruction on the concept behind â€Å"empowerment†, and how the objective was to have employees at all levels taking responsibility for decision making, at that level, and accepting responsibility for the results. And letting them understand that positive attitude is needed in every step and every task to be done, is practically motivated on the other hand. For second sub-question of the question no 1 of â€Å"what might they do now to get the empowerment process back on track?†, it is no doubt that getting the program back on track, Mr Griffin needs to bring managers and employees at all levels into the teams, after all involved have learned what the new management approach entails. And assigning the tast of â€Å"quick and easy to win† to every team support them in gaining the motivation. In answer of question no 2 of â€Å" Can you think of ways Barbara could have avoided the problems her team faced in the meeting with department heads ? † we would like to answer that Ms Russel could avoided the problems her team face by including the department heads in her team, and charging them with identifying the challenge and obstacles to high performance in their departments. She also should have required them to apply this approach to all levels in their departments. Empowerment management means granting authority to subordinates. Her team actually tried to â€Å"empower† lower level management without including them in the solution. In answering the question no 3 of â€Å" If you were barbara Russell, what would you do now ? Why?† If I were Barbara Russell, I would push slowly to reform and work for gradual support from the other teams and I would support Martin to realize the problems with inter-departmental communication that exist at Elektra’s product as he may not have been with the company for long enough a period of time. Encouraging Martin to meet with each department head in advance and try to collect information about the corporate culture and each department head’s opinion of his empowerment campaign and so, he might have had a  better idea as to how he should implement his reforms. Second, by having each team membership consist of only one  department, each team habitually brought their ideas for each department to change and that did nothing to contribute to the poor departmental communication.  The most important things for Barbara to do is to communicate to Martin the existing problems concerning communication and trust between departments. Barbara’s other choices, to p ush ahead with grim determination while the CEO remains ignorant to the real cultural standard, is doomed to failure if for no other reason than that Barbara has no definitive clout among the rest of upper management, and thus not enough weight to throw around to effect change. She could try to make new teams or to debate the proposals of her team, but she may not carry enough authority to lead the other departments in such an action. Such actions could inevitably strain the current inter-departmental communications further and may not provide any positive results without lots of hard work. Once Martin is made aware of the poor communication relationships that currently exist, steps can be made to attack the problem from a different angle. Barbara, by confronting Martin on these issues, serves  herself and the campaign by showing her supervisor that she is both interested in his idea and its success and by providing Martin with necessary insight into the corporate culture that he may have yet to fully realize. As a CEO who’s main function is to please the stock holders of this publicly traded company, Martin should value the information Barbara can provide him as it would serve to both increase his plan’s potential for success and to please his bosses. Once he is made aware of the current situation, Martin will  have a better grasp on just what the problems are that exist at Elektra’s product and how to solve them. As the CEO, Martin should take a strong management stance and exert his power over the department heads by clearly  demarking the chain of command. Done effectively, Martin would thus have established among upper management that his ideas will be implemented and that it would be wise to support him in the campaign. This can be done by simply repeating his credos among the employees, by being very clear on his ideas, and by encouraging open discourse among the levels of upper management. This serves to not only define the company goals but to instill a new sense of purpose among the employees through strong leadership. Next, Martin needs to regroup the initial project teams so that each team consists of a variety of employees from different departments. Having employees from different departments actually work with and speak to each other is the first step to eventually tearing down the communication barriers that currently exist in the company. This  methodology serves other useful purposes as well. As well, by having a team make-up that is cross-departmental, when teams present their ideas there will no longer exist a â€Å"you against us† attitude. At this point it would be nice to know more about Martin and  his history in the corporate world, and the relationship between Barbara and Simon. With this knowledge, it becomes possible to study Martin’s management style and track record so that more definitive conclusions can be drawn concerning what he should do. As well, knowing how Barbara and Simon relate can offer guidelines to how Barbara may be able to use Simon as an information tool for gauging employee’s opinions regarding the empowerment campaign and the corporate culture in general. This is just the first step towards launching Martin’s empowerment campaign and turning the company into a motivated, profitable entity. Much work has yet to be done to ensure that Electra-Quik even has a chance of becoming a market leader again, although Marti n is correct in his desires to change the corporate culture.

Multiple Births Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Multiple Births - Essay Example An inconsistency during the 2nd trimester between the measured fundal height and gestational age of the fetus usually present a case of twin or multiple pregnancies. Clinical presentation of these pregnancies elicit size of fetus greater than the date by exam, fetal motion not detected until 18-20 weeks, elevated AFP results (Tharpe, 2006). Confirmation of such pregnancies is made through ultrasonographic examination. Complications: Several risks and complications are associated with multiple gestations including early pregnancy loss, low birth weight along with the occurrence of intra-uterine fetal demise, preterm labor and delivery (Levene and Chervenak, 2009). There is an increased prevalence of congenital anomalies in monozygotic twins. Brain anomalies like hydrocephaly and micro-cephaly are found to be associated with multiple pregnancies. Also, risk for intra-partum asphyxia is increased in second born due to frequent fetal mal-presentation leading to traumatic delivery. Risk of maternal morbidity is also enhanced in these pregnancies. Other maternal complications include induced hypertension, gestational diabetes, anemia, urinary tract infections, pre-eclampsia, ante-partum hemorrhage, post-partum hemorrhage and endometriosis (Littleton and Engebreston, 2002). According to Avery et al., (2005) in multiple births increased risk of intra-uterine growth retardation is reported which may be due to unequal sharing of placenta among fetuses. Consequently, usual problems associated with intra-uterine growth retardation like intra-partum asphyxia, polycythemia, hypoglycemia and pulmonary hemorrhage are witnessed. In 5% of the multiple pregnancies, twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome is observed which is due to vascular anastomosis between the circulations of monozygotic twins sharing the same placenta. The transfusions taking place in single direction may render the donor fetus anemic, while the recipient fetus becomes polycythemic. Eventually, either of the twin fetuses may become hydropic due to volume overload or anemia. In some severe cases, the donor twin may expire. Management: Patients with multi-fetal pregnancies are followed closely with ultrasonographic examination to assess fetal growths and development throughout her pregnancy. Patient m ay be hospitalized if she develops signs of preterm labor or other complications. Delivery room management of multiple births requires larger number of trained personal for resuscitation/CPR in case of preterm delivery and availability of blood as multi-fetal pregnancies experience frequent blood loss and may lead to post-partum hemorrhage (Gilstrip et al., 2002). Multiple births offer a challenge to nurses and health paramedics in delivery room. Where majority of multiple pregnancies should be delivered normally a caesarean section is suggested as a preferred mode of delivery (Levene and Chervenak, 2009). For a vaginal delivery, continuous electronic monitoring of the fetal vital signs, tolerance to labor (attained by fetal electronic heart beat monitor) and uterine activity should be done (Cruickshank and Shetty, 2009). Delivery should be done till 40th week of gestation because of increased risk of peri-natal morbidity after the due date. In the labor management of twin gestation prostaglandins or oxytocin can be administered to induce vaginal delivery (Creasy et al., 2004).

Scandinavian Airlines System Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Scandinavian Airlines System - Assignment Example SAS pioneered in the Arctic route in 1954 with flight from Copenhagen to Los Angels. In 1957 with transpolar service to Tokyo. SAS is also Pioneer in using modern technology within Europe or to US reducing travel time and improving quality of flight. There was a boom in terms of profit in 50s, 60s and 70s. The problems started appearing in late 70s and early 80s. There was substantial reduction in the profits. Jan Carlzon accepted Presidency of this Giant in 1981. Looking at the recent reduction in profits Carlzon had take drastic measures for a improving the financial status of the company. He undertook various strategies and was able to achieve sustainable growth rate for SAS. (INSEAD CEDEP 1988) Carlzon being a sharp and intelligent business leader at once noticed that due to stagnation in the market and over capacity company was losing its market share against competitors. He understood that he should chalk out a new business strategy to deal with the situation. The first strategy that proven and tested by him in his previous venture. He decided to reduce the fleet so that the operation costs may be reducing thus increasing the profit. The replacement of large aircraft in smaller ones would be more cost effective and it would be helpful in increasing the frequency of flights on short and busy routes. He also planned to convert the first class to Business class with almost similar facilities but lower rates. Resource-based theories of strategy As discussed earlier the previous management was more interested in acquiring the planes of latest technology and also of larger size. These planes drained the resources of group and also increased the operations costs. He asked the managers to cut those expenses that were not productive but should not hesitate in raising those that may increase the productivity of the company. Administrative costs were reduced by 25% but also good investments were made into new services and facilities and aircraft interiors. Another important step taken by Group was to expand the circle of their services. The group wanted to take care all the needs of customer from buy tickets to going back home. Introducing SAS International Hotels did this. In 1983, SIH became a separate division within SAS group. (INSEAD CEDEP 1988) Human-resource-based theories of strategy As Carlzon believed in quality not quantity, so he brought about wholesale changes in the human resources section of the group. As the size of fleet was reduced, consequently the number of staff was also reduced. But on the other hand, new recruitments were made on smaller scale where the quality was decisive factor not quantity. As he introduced new products so different, type of staff was required for that. In past there was a bureaucratic atmosphere, everybody just sticked to the company policy, there was no personal initiative involved. For

Problems In Financing Education Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Problems In Financing Education - Assignment Example A preliminary analysis of the breakup of 2000 students based on past records show that the bulk of the students need make-up coaching in Math- there are two sections with a seating of 1400 students, comprising 70 percent of the total 2000 students. As compared to this, there is just one section each for Reading English and Writing English respectively and that in turn comprises 10 and 20 percent of student total. At the moment the teachers are not paid any additional amount for these classes. Meanwhile, you have just been informed that there has been a 10 percent cut in funding and must find ways to deal with this new reality.My first strategy would be to increase revenues for these classes by charging additional amounts for the use of school facilities like the basketball court, swimming pool, the computer lab and the science laboratory. This would form a broad base for earning additional amounts and moreover could be implemented for the long term without many negative effects. Usin g facilities such as the pool, the science lab, and the basketball court could be made optional but the use of the computer lab would be fundamental for all disciplines. A letter written to all parents stating the inevitability of these measures would have to be prepared, stating the additional amounts to be charged and expected date of implementation. It would also be mentioned that a lot of private schools have adopted this policy in the past, out of sheer necessity and in order to keep up with the rising costs of education. Strategy 2 My second strategy would be to hire part-time faculty comprising of retired English and Math teachers and professors from the local community to take these classes, aided by the adjunct staff for administration etc. This group of retired teachers and professors represents a readily available resource pool that is often unused by our communities. The compensation offered would be minimal and many would be grateful for an opportunity to make a contribution to the institution even after their retirement. This would also have a favorable impact on the school, principal and the teachers involved. Strategy 3 I would also try to raise revenues by asking philanthropists like Warren Buffett, Bill Gates, Larry Page, Sergey Brin and Mark Zuckerberg to support the cost of teaching a class for the entire duration of a particular make-up session. This would include the salaries of teachers as well as other incidental and administrative costs. Since there are five classes in total, this could be achieved comfortably. The name of the contributor would be emblazoned on the door of each class and a photograph of the door as well as the class in full session sent to each contributor as a sign of the good work they have done by sponsoring this course (Sorenson & Goldsmith, 2006). It would similarly be good for the principal, teachers, and students involved in the project. Strategy 4 Often the students lose interest because the regular teachers are in a hurry and do not have time to give individual attention and guidance to a backward

Friction Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Friction - Lab Report Example From the experiment, it is clear that the static friction force for block with one weight and block for two weight is higher than the kinetic friction force for both masses. This is to enable the object move at a constant velocity. The static friction force for block with one weight and two weight were 6.254  ± 0.7658 N and 3.773  ± 0.4060 N respectively. While the kinetic friction for the same masses was 2.472  ± 0.1193 N and 1.361 ± 0.09464 N. respectively. On the other hand, the co-efficient of static friction for block with one weight and two weight was 0.6134  ±0.20297 and 0.5667 ± 0.1224 respectively. While, co-efficient of kinetic friction for the same masses were 0.22127 ± 0.1224 and 0.22400  ± 0.019076. Both the coefficient of static and kinetic friction was consistent with the values obtained by other groups. These result shows that the coefficient of static friction reduces as more weight is added to the object. The same scenario is also witnessed with the coefficient of kinetic friction. However, for a clear relationship to be obtained between the co-efficient of both static and kinetic friction more weights needs to be added on the object so as to obtain a good relationship. The obtained results showed that 70 % of the measurement lied in the (average  ± one std. deviation). While, 97.5 % of the friction force lied in the (average  ± two std. deviation). Even though, the percentages of the measurements that lie (average  ± one std. deviation) and (average  ± two std. deviation) are slightly higher than 68 % and 95 % respectively. These results are can be said to be normally

Federalist Papers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Federalist Papers - Essay Example For Madison, the faction in a government creates a problem because a certain select individuals who are minorities are inimical to the greater good. Individuals being men, are predisposed to advance interests favorable to him and this creates a problem in public service. Moreover, when faction rules the government, the people belonging to such faction will only advance their own self interests rather than public good. Being such, government agencies will just become a vehicle of private greed instead of an instrument that will serve greater good. Madison pointed out that a government dominated by a faction is no longer a democracy because it only serves the narrow interest of few people. In sum, factions create problem in government because self-interest will rule instead of advancing public interest and public service. The strength of the Federalist Paper No.10 lies in its proposal on how to address the faction in government and how to at least minimize its adverse effects. In the Federalist Paper No.10, the idea of a republic is proposed as a solution to the problem posed by a faction. This proposed republic is different from the pure and populist democracy because it is capable of protecting minorities and promotes greater good than pure democracy which could become a vehicle that will be used by factions. According to the Federalist Paper No.10, the weakness of a republican government can be reduced through the mechanism of representation. This kind of mechanism allows a greater probability for capable leaders to be elected than just those who are popular but only represents the interest of a faction. Having capable leaders to be elected in office is favorable to people because they would tend to craft policies that serves the greater good and will tend to advance the interest of the many instead of the few such as those interest inherent in a faction. Also,

Intercultural communication( this is the course I'm studying, not the Assignment - 1

Intercultural communication( this is the course I'm studying, not the topic) - Assignment Example On my arrival, I noticed I did not know anyone and all those in attendance were Chinese and I do not know even know a single Spanish word. I knew this was going to be very hard for me because of the language barrier. All eyes were on me and I felt even more uncomfortable. I knew everyone expected me to introduce myself since I looked just out place. I did not know if responding with a nod would be considered disrespectful, but it was my only option. I had seen in Chinese movies that when they greeted each other they bowed as a sign of respect, I was going to collaborate with nodding with hopes of not embarrassing myself. Finally, someone came to the door and introduced herself to me in Chinese I nodded and I bowed slightly. She bowed too, and asked me to come in, in English. I felt so relieved and I explained to her that I did not know Chinese. She laughed and told me that I was in luck that she was there since no one else in the family spoke English. She explained to me that when she introduces me to the mourners it is respectful to stand up, smile, and look at them with ease and after the introduction; I could shake hands (Kao, 9). She introduced me as her cousin’s friend and explained that I did not know Chinese or anything to do with their culture. They looked at me with smiley faces with some even giggling and this made feel very much at ease. After the service, I took time to talk to her and she told me a few things about her culture including how to use chopsticks. I regretted not taking an interest to learn the language or even to know how to say hi when my friend was still alive. I learnt a lot at that burial and it created an interest to study the Chinese language. I in return taught them a few things about our culture and our food. I realized that there is always something new and interesting in other cultures. If people would take more time to learn about each

Turkey Syria Relations Since 1998 Research Paper

Turkey Syria Relations Since 1998 - Research Paper Example The relation in general remained undulating with both countries involved in sabotage and terror activities. The base of this relation was laid with the joining of Hatay Province from Syria to Turkey after referendum under the French mandate in 1939 (Federal Research Division 120). It caused serious anger and revolt in Syrians and this hatred lead to deterioration of relations after the Syrian independence. The relations are made more complicated with each representing different blocks of Islamic sects; Sunni and Shia blocks. The Arabs along with Turkey consist of Sunni majority whereas; Iran and Syria represent the Shia block. Each block is backed by group of countries and strong ties among people are maintained with Islam being the pillar. The relations, however, took new turn in 1998 and a limited period of golden era soon followed. 2. Adana Agreement Adana Agreement was signed in October 1998 and it gave way to efforts for increased cooperation and dialogue among the two countries (Khalilzad, Lesser, and Larrabee 33). Under this agreement, security meetings, hotline, exchange of high level security officials as well as diplomatic missions started. The events that lead to this agreement however, must be discussed to give perspective and insight into current state. 2.1 PKK / Kurdish Nationalist Party Kurds are mainly in the eastern part of Turkey, northern part of Syria and Iraq as well. The total Kurdish population amounts to 22.6 million (Aras 93). They are regarded as ethnic minority but started separatist movement against Turkey in the 1970s. Kemal Ataturk gave very strong fundamentals on which Turkey nationalism is based on. Turks are therefore, extremely rigid on any change in these fundamentals which include one nationality, language and exclusion of religion from governance. These principles by Kemal Ataturk led to the exclusion of Kurds from Turkish society (Sayyid 66). Their language not being Turkish and refusal to abide by Turkish laws for seculari sm lead to evolution of Kurdish opposition groups and hence the formation of PKK. Kurds are known as the largest ethnic minority and they demand separate land to practice their language, traditions and customs. Kurdish language was banned from schools in Turkey and checks were imposed on public use of this language. Bans were even imposed to restrict distribution of Kurdish songs by 1983 (Yildiz and Breau 11). PKK under these circumstances gained attention among Kurds in Syria and Iraq as well. The movement slowly gained momentum and attacks against Turkish military and state security departments started. Kurdish identity was accepted to some extend in 1991 under Prime Minister Turgut Ozal’s government. The ban on Kurdish language was removed, but its wide public use was still restricted (Eickelman and Anderson 192). 2.2 Syrian Support for PKK The shared border area between the two countries is mainly Kurdish majority area. This shared area provided a buffer for the Syrian go vernemnt to support Kurdish movement. Safe havens were provided to Kurdish chain of command along with military support including training camps in the 80s and 90s (Larrabee 14). The issue was recognised by Syria as an opportunity to politicise and form basis to start terror activities agaisnt Turkey. Military support provided to Kurds escalated the issue and isolated attacks on Turkish Military and state security increased particularly in this Kurd majority area. 2.3 Syrian Double Role Security

Why the Enlargement of EU is Beneficial for the Economy of the Member Essay

Why the Enlargement of EU is Beneficial for the Economy of the Member States and EU as a whole - Essay Example This essay highlights the last two members to join were Bulgaria and Romania. These two are the poorest members of EU. They comprise less than 1% off its GDP while contributing 6% of the EU’s population. But these economies are growing fast, at about 5-7% per year. (BBC News) Croatia and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia have received â€Å"candidate† status as a precursor of membership. Turkey also started membership talks in October, 2005. Albania, Bosnia, Kosovo, Montenegro and Serbia are also expected to start discussions for membership. But these countries will have to face increasing opposition to enlargement of EU from some member states. The major opposition comes from five member states – Austrian, France, Germany, Luxembourg and United Kingdom. As the report declares there was serious opposition when the idea of a European union was first broached. The main arguments offered against enlargement were: it would lead to mass immigration from poorer countries to the richer nations, with the result that poor countries would take away jobs from the richer ones and companies also would relocate to countries which offer lower labour costs and lower social protection; the poor countries would require huge subsidies from the richer member states. The main economic argument in favour of enlargement is that access to more countries would stimulate and boost long term dynamic economic growth in the relatively poor economies.

Define Motivation, Explain How the Expectancy Theory Works Essay Example for Free

Define Motivation, Explain How the Expectancy Theory Works Essay TEMPLATE FOR SUMMARISING AND EVALUATING ARTICLES FROM SCHOLARLY JOURNALS Title and Article Reference| Robert G. Isaac, Wilfred J. Zerbe and Douglas C. Pitt(Summer 2001) Leadership And Motivation: The Effective Application Of Expectancy Theory, Journal of Managerial Issues , Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 212-226| Aim / Purpose of article| In this article, we discuss the application of a motivational model that provides a practical tool for individuals wishing to assume leadership roles. This model, namely expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964; Porter and Lawler, 1968), suggests that individuals, acting through self-interest, adopt courses of action perceived as maximizing the probability of desirable outcomes for themselves. This desire to maximize self-interest provides aspiring leaders with unique opportunities to assume leadership roles by simultaneously meeting both follower needs and organizational requirements| Sample, location, method of data collection and analysis| Article was only theoretical. No empirical evidence offered| Findings/Interpretations reported in the article| Leadership is hard work because it means stepping forward and taking the time to motivate each follower on a personal basis, according to the principles of the model of expectancy theory.| Significance/contribution of the article in relation to your other articles and your topic| This article also contains solid information which outlines that the expectancy theory is used by leadership to motivate their employee’s by meeting their expectation which then inspires them to perform their task highly.| Strengths of the article| Well researched with strong background in the exploration prior of research| Weaknesses of the a rticle| No weakness indicated as the expectancy theory has proven to be vital for leadership and management.| Quotes from the article that you plan to use in your assignment| â€Å"V. H. Vroom (1964) suggested that people consciously choose particular courses of action, based upon perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs, as a consequence of their desires to enhance pleasure and avoid pain†. (Leadership And Motivation: The Effective Application Of Expectancy Theory) Summer 2001 p 214| Quotes from the article that you plan to use in your assignment| â€Å"In essence, the model suggests that the individual feels motivated when three conditions are perceived†1. The personal expenditure of effort will result in an acceptable level of performance. 2. The performance level achieved will result in a specific out-come for the person3.The outcome attained is personally valuedSummer 2001 p 215|

Definitions Of Assessment And Classroom Based Assessment English Language Essay

Definitions Of Assessment And Classroom Based Assessment English Language Essay The aim of this chapter is to look at relevant research studies in relation to assessment in the classroom context, and to explore the role of classroom assessment in more details, with a specific focus on formative language assessment. It appears that the teachers classroom assessment practices and strategies may directly impact learners learning, and this includes young learners.(Oksana:not only with young learnersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..so what should I put here) Classroom teachers are in the front line of helping learners learning and assessing their performance in the classroom. Thus, the literature review is mainly concerned with the role of classroom assessment and the relationship between classroom assessment practices and learning. The following section clarifies some terminology and explores the links between assessment and learning with young language learners in the EFL context through a review of literature on experiences of assessment with primary-age learners. 2.2 Definitions of assessment and classroom-based assessment In this section, the definition of the term assessment is provided and the definition of classroom-based assessment (CBA) is discussed to provide more details of the relationship between assessment and learning in classrooms. In the educational context, the term assessment is often associated with testing for most of the teachers, learners and other stakeholders. However, testing is only one element of assessment and it actually encompasses a wider range of factors from tests to dynamic and collaborative activities and tasks. Therefore, it is necessary to clarify the difference between assessment and testing before looking at the definition of classroom-based assessment(Oksana: insert page numberà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦what?). 2.2.1 The distinction between assessment and testing Ioannou-Georgior and Sophie (2003: 4) provide a broader interpretation of assessment; they describe assessment as a general term which includes all methods used to gather information about childrens knowledge, ability, understanding, attitudes and motivation. Assessment can be carried out through a number of instruments (for example, test, self-assessment), and can be formal or informal. This definition suggests that teachers may use both formal and informal methods to collect information in relation to learners performance, such as their ability and attitudes, as an evidence of learning. Ioannou-Georgior and Sophie (ibid) point out that assessment refers to all kinds of methods, whether they are formal or informal, with the aim of collecting evidences of learners learning.(Oksana: similar to above, suggestion: remove it) The studies of Rea-Dickins(2000), Lambert and Lines (2000) go further to suggest that assessment is a constant ongoing process rather than a onetime thing. Rea-Dickins (2000) illustrates assessment as the general process of monitoring of keeping track of the learners progress. (p. 376). She highlights that such process is a continuous method to monitor the learners performance. Lambert and Lines (2000) also show the similar view of point, they define assessment as the process of gathering, interpreting, recording and using information about pupils responses to educational tasks (p. 4) From their viewpoint, assessment is related to what teachers do during the process of teaching and learning, including gathering, diagnosing, recording and using information about pupils performance and feedback. As can be seen, assessment is a part of both teachers and learners life within classroom and is integrated to the process of teaching and learning. It is also used to monitor and respond to lea rners regular work, such as learning activities, tasks and tests. On the other hand, testing refers to a procedure that is used to measure learners ability by teachers and examiners (Rea-Dickins, 2000). According to Ioannou-Georgior and Sophie (2003), testing is a procedure with a certain objective and is used by teachers to assess learners performance in order to understand whether the learner has achieved this objective or not. They also point out that testing used tasks or exercises and assigns marks or grades based on quantitative results (p. 4) This seems to suggest that testing is one of the tools that used by teachers to assess their learners ability and is a way to demonstrate what learners have learnt. It also implies that testing is a onetime thing rather than an ongoing process. As can be seen, testing is a procedure with a certain objective and is used to collect quantitative results, in terms of marks or grades. It is used to measure what the learners have learnt and to check whether they have met their goal or not; meanwhile, assessme nt refers to all methods of collecting both quantitative and qualitative data in relation to learners performance and is a continuous process. (Oksana: Yes, but it is classroom based assessment specifically that does thisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..what?)In fact, through clarifying the boundaries between testing and assessment may help us to get insight into the meaning and definition of classroom-based assessment. 2.2.2 Definition of Classroom-Based Assessment Classroom-based assessment is defined by Airasian as the process of collecting, synthesizing and interpreting information to aid in classroom decision making (2005, p. 2). He highlights the work that teachers need to take during the process of assessment in the classroom context, with the aim of supporting teachers in decision making, such as deciding what forms of assessment are most appropriate for gaining information about learners learning and measuring achievement. In classrooms, teachers collect data in relation to learners needs, strength, and weakness and try to interpret the information on the basis of teachers own beliefs, capacities and knowledge. They then provide help to learners and may be able to support individual learning needs. Such ongoing processes, including assigning grades, providing feedback and learning opportunities, and modifying the teaching and learning, are aiming to renew, keep track and record learners performance in the classroom. By doing so, teacher s may be able to enhance learners learning and help them to close the gap between their current status and their target level (Sadler 1989). Further, Mckay describes that classroom assessment or teacher assessment refers to assessment carried out by teachers in the classroom (2006, p. 140). He then notes that classroom assessment may be formative, for instance, when the purpose is to provide feedback to help learners improve learning, or it may be summative, when the purpose is to record and report pupils achievement and attainment (Rea-Dickins 2000). As can be seen, the purposes for classroom assessment may lead to using assessment information formatively or summatively by teachers. For example, they may need to use formative assessment to identify learner needs and use summative assessment to provide learners achievement to school authorities in the end of a school year. In fact, there are a variety of purposes for teachers to use classroom assessment. Rea-Dickins suggests three objectives of using classroom assessment: teaching, nurturing learning, and measuring learning (2000). In other words, teachers may use classro om assessment to modify their teaching methods and materials, provide appropriate help to learners and meet the bureaucratic demands. Classroom assessment plays a significant role in collecting information about learners learning and can also be used to support teachers teaching and learning (Rea-Dickins, 2001). It is a continuous and integrated process which can be planned in advance as well as be unplanned, such as observing learners language performance during the course of teaching and assessment activities. The roles of teachers may have an impact on learners learning in the classroom, whether as facilitators to develop learners language development or as assessors to measure learners language learning, (Rea-Dickins, 2008). Teachers may use both formative and summative assessment as pedagogic tools to scaffold learners, adjust their teaching, and assign grades for learners in the classroom. It is important for teachers to develop classroom assessment skills and strategies, and bring about positive change in classrooms. The aims of adopting classroom assessment strategies are to support learners learning and te achers teaching, and to meet the ultimate achievement of the curriculum goals. Rea-Dickins (2001) provides a model of classroom assessment which illustrates teachers roles in four stages in the classroom assessment process (see Figure 2.1). It also reveals the fact that teachers may need to play a mediating role in order to deal with various demands from improving learning and modifying teaching. For instance, in stage 1, the Planning stage, teachers may be interpreters to explain the learning goals and assessment criteria with learners and evaluators to identify learners needs and levels. They may become supporter in stage 2 in order to scaffold learners and provide feedback to them. As for stage 3, teachers may also need to be interpreters to interpret the learning evidence and improvers to refine the assessment process; meanwhile, they may need to be reports to report and record the learning progress to administrative authorities. Stage 1: Planning Identifying the purpose for the assessment?(why?) Choosing the assessment activity(how) Preparing the learners for the assessment Who chooses/decides for each of the above Stage 4: Recording Dissemination Recording reporting progress toward NC Formal review for LEA or internal school purposes Strategies for dissemination of formal review of learners Stage 2: Implementation Introducing the assessment(why, what, how) Scaffolding, during assessment activity Learner self- peer monitoring Feedback to learners(immediate) Stage 3: Monitoring Recording evidence of achievement Interpreting evidence obtained from an assessment Revising teaching and learning plans Sharing findings with other teachers Feedback to learners (delayed) Figure 2.1 Process and strategies in classroom assessment  [1]   However, teachers may not be able to predict the complex interaction between these two assessment purposes before actually implementing the assessment active. For instance, teacher-planned summative assessment may also provide formative assessment opportunities for students during the teaching process. Rea-Dickins (2006) points out that the boundary and interaction between formative and summative purposes of assessment cannot be identified in any watertight way in advance, as they will unfold and be enacted through the classroom discourse (p. 183). As can be seen, teachers need to be flexible with their classroom assessment practices and be able to use both formative and summative assessment as pedagogic tools to scaffold learners, adjust their teaching, and assign grades for learners in the classroom. Thus, it is important for teachers to understand the functions of both formative and summative assessments and how to use them to modify their teaching, enhance pupil achievement, and report to school authorities, parents and other stakeholders. 2.3 The Functions of Classroom Assessment: Formative and Summative Assessment On the basis of the definition of classroom assessment (2.2), classroom assessment may be used as a variety of instruments by teachers to collect data in relation to learners needs, ability, knowledge, understanding and performance in the classroom. This seems to imply the primary role teachers play in classroom assessment process and the importance of linking formative and summative assessment to effectively enhance learners learning and report it to other stakeholders, including parents, other teachers, learners themselves, and school authorities. In this section, the functions of classroom assessment, in terms of formative and summative assessment, will be discussed, particularly with assessment for learning, through a review of the literature in relation to the role of both formative and summative assessment in classrooms. 2.3.1 The Role of Formative and Summative Assessment Classroom teachers are in the front line of assisting learners to develop their ability and enhance their learning, thus, it is crucial for teachers to recognize the different functions and characteristics between formative and summative assessments and to integrate them into everyday teaching and learning. Harlen and James (1997) share the different roles of formative and summative assessment in classroom assessment. They urge the need to distinguish the differences between formative and summative assessment, in terms of the functions and characteristics, and then connect and wave them together. To reveal the complexities of the differences between formative and summative, some research reports have provided a variety of interpretations to help teachers to clarify the concept of formative and summative assessment. According to the report of Task Group on Assessment and Testing, known as TGAT, it defines formative and summative assessment through clarifying the different purposes and timing between them. For formative assessment, teachers may use it to understand the the positive achievements of a pupil (DES/WO, 1988, para. 23) (Oksana: This is quite an old reference, is there anything newer/more recent on this point?)and then plan their teaching in order to help the pupil to reach to the next step. It highlights the dynamic process of teaching and learning in the classroom and more importantly, it points out the future direction through using the results of assessment. Formative assessment is a continuous process of adjusting teachers teaching and learners learning; meanwhile, summative assessment is used for systematic recording of learners overall achievement. In other words, teachers may use summative assessment to note learners performance, such as recording the grade or scores of teacher made and standardized tests, after a certain period of time. In 2001, Clarke expressed similar views in providing a clear illustration for formative and summative assessment: If we think of our children as plantsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦summative assessment of the plants is the process of simply measuring them. The measurements might be interesting to compare and analyse, but, in themselves, they do not affect the growth of the plants. Formative assessment, on the other hand, is the garden equivalent of feeding and watering the plants directly affecting their growth (p2). As can be seen, the main function of formative assessment is to nurture pupils and improve learning, which is a continuous process of interaction between teachers and learners. For instance, in classrooms, teachers provide guidance for learners toward improvement through formative assessment feedback during the processes of teaching and learning. As for summative assessment, it takes place after the teaching and learning. Teachers may grade or make judgments in relation to learners learning in order to inform and report to other stakeholders. In the classroom, teachers use formative assessment to help learners learning as well as modify their own teaching methods and materials. They also use summative assessment to assign grades and report attainment at the end of a school year for administrative purposes (Bachman Palmer 1996). As such, formative assessment requires the ability of the teacher to diagnose learners performance, in terms of what causes him or her to get struck, and to help learner to understand what to learn, how they learn, and how well they have learned. 2.3.2 Formative Classroom Assessment: assessment for learning More recently, the focus of the classroom assessment studies has shifted from forms of test to the interactions between assessment and classroom learning. This shift also highlights the importance of the improvement of learning through formative teacher assessment. Black and Wiliam (1998) review a variety of past research studies in relation to classroom formative assessment. They point out that several empirical studies show evidence to support the claim that improving formative assessment do raise standards and help pupils learning, particularly with low ability pupils. They also present evidence in relation to how teachers use formative assessment practices and strategies to enhance pupils learning in the field of general education. A broader explanation of formative assessment is provided by Black and Wiliam, they illustrate that all those activities undertaken by teachers, and/or by their students, which provide information to be used as feedback to modify the teaching and learning activities in which they are engaged (1998, p.7). Their interpretation not only points out that formative assessment activities can be used by both teachers and learners but also indicates how teachers and students use feedback to adjust the teaching and learning. From this perspective, formative assessment is embedded in teaching and learning and can be used to prompt learner learning. Key formative assessment strategies, such as effective teacher feedback, teacher scaffolding, self- and peer- assessment, and raising learners self-esteem and motivation, may be integrated and embedded within teacher-learner(s) interactions(Rea-Dickins 2006). As can be seen, the activities that conduct by teachers, such as observation, teacher made tests, take-home tasks, and learners, including self- and peer- assessment, would provide information to help both teachers and learners improve themselves. Further, Brindley (2001) points out formative assessment should undertake by teachers during the learning process, by doing so, teachers can use the results to improve instruction (p. 137). In addition, Sadler (1989) connects formative assessment with feedback and believes that feedback to teachers and to learners are separate. He suggests that the aim of using feedback for teachers is to diagnose learners performance and modify their teaching in order to help learners to enhance their abilities; meanwhile, for learners, the purpose of using feedback is to monitor their performance and understand their own learning weaknesses and strengths. Further, Tunstall and Gipps (1996, p.393) identify two types of feedback used by teachers in classrooms: evaluative and descriptive feedback respectively. They suggest that the former seems to be more close to affective and conative (effort-based) aspects of learning with a performance goal, whereas the latter places the emphasis on the cognitive development with a mastery goal. Teachers act as facilitators in providing descriptive types of feedback, such as making suggestions and questioning as part of discussion, rather than directing (p. 401). As can be seen, there is a greater links between descriptive feedback and formative assessment. However, Torrance and Pryor (1998) point out that teacher feedback may have a negative influence on learners, for instance, when the teacher tries to correct learners mistakes which may lead to the impression of learners producing wrong answers. It may even be seen as criticism by the pupils and discourage learners self-esteem. Further, teacher feedback with praise may result in encouraging competition among learners instead of increasing learners motivation. Thus, it is important for teachers to recognize the influences and impact of formative assessment feedback on learner motivation and self-esteem. To sum up, classroom assessment is used by teachers to collect data in relation to the process and attainment of learners with aim of responding to individual needs and curricular demands. Formative assessment is crucial in enhancing learner learning and closing the gap between learners actual level and potential level. The following section explored assessment of young language learners in a foreign classroom context through review of past research studies in relation to classroom assessment in practice. 2.4Research on Assessment of Young Learners in the EFL Classrooms In this section, the relevant research studies of classroom assessment of young language learners are explored, followed by introducing a unique Taiwanese educational context, in terms of learning English in private ESL schools, as the classroom assessment context in this research. 2.4.1 Classroom Assessment of Young Language Learners Rea-Dickins (2000) points out that since the 1990s research studies in relation to assessment for foreign language learners has been more in evidence (e.g., Low et al., 1993; McKay et al., 1994; Edelenbos and Johnstone,1996; Breen et al., 1997; Leung and Teasdale, 1997). Language Testing proposes a special issue that is focusing on assessment for young language learners, who ages 5 to about 12, in the school system. The key idea of these reports in this issue is related to a variety of purposes for assessment for young language learners within an early years language learning curriculum which results in raising the awareness of wider issues in relation to assessment of young language learners, such as how the validity of classroom-based assessment is achieved. Teadeale and Leung (2000) draw the attention to the validity of implement alternative assessment and monitoring learners learning performance through teacher assessment. Rea-Dickins and Gardner (2000) also look at the same issue in relation to the implementation of formative classroom assessment, in terms of keeping track of learners language development, in the English as a Second Language (ESL) context. Their findings suggest the potential variables which may influence the validity of teacher assessment during the assessment procedure. This is followed by Gattullo who explores the way to implement formative assessment in the Italian primary foreign language classroom, where English is taught since grade 3 (age 8). She investigates different formative assessment processes through analyzing classroom assessment discourses and she also observes the everyday interactions between teachers and learners. The results suggest that instead of using formative assessment actions which may be m ore beneficial for learning, including observing process, examining product and metacognitive questioning; teachers use more common actions, such as questioning, correcting and judging. Continuing the theme of formative assessment of primary learners in the EFL context, Zangl (2000) provides the methods of assessment to gain information in relation to primary-age learners language skills. She argues that teachers may be able to draw a developmental picture for individual learners, including their general interactional skills and specific language skills, through ongoing assessment throughout primary school. Hasselgren (2000) looks at the innovative ways to develop materials, such as tests, teacher assessment, and learners self-assessment, which can improve both teachers and learners assessment skills in Norwegian primary schools. In the context of Norway, one significant difference is that there is no tradition of testing for young language learners due to local policy. This contributes to high-demand assessment methods, particularly in materials development and task design, and to the implementation of formative assessment, in terms of assessment for learning. Both teachers and learners are encouraged to develop their ability to assess. As can be seen, the national policy is one of important variables that influences teachers attitude towards integrating classroom-based assessment into their everyday language teaching. It is also crucial to take variables, such as learners prior cultural knowledge, teachers knowledge and ability in assessment, and the English curriculum, into account when assessing primary-age learners of English as a foreign language. Teachers should choose and design the appropriate assessment material for Young language learners. The material should be well adapted to learners cognitive and linguistic skills and to their interests. The work of Hasselgren suggests that classroom assessment may be influenced by a variety of factors, particularly by the national policy. These external elements, such as the government policy and English curriculum, may have direct impact on the implementation of assessment, teachers attitude towards classroom assessment and their classroom assessment practices in the EFL context. A brief history of primary school English education in Taiwan is explored in the next section to gain insight into a special English classroom in Taiwan. 2.4.2 ESL Program in Taiwan English teaching and learning for young learners has become increasingly important in Asian countries, such as Taiwan, China, Japan and Korea, where learners study English as a Foreign Language (EFL) over the past few decades. At this point it is useful to clarify some terminology before introducing the English educational context in Taiwan. The term English as a Second Language (ESL) used in countries, , such as Canada, North America and Australia, which refers to learners who are using English as the medium of instruction in school contexts but who are not English first language (L1) speakers (Rea-Dickins, 2000, p. 115). On the other hand, the term English as Foreign Language (EFL) refers to when English is taught to non-native English speakers in non- English speaking areas, such as Europe, Asia, and Africa. In 1997, the Ministry of Education (MOE) in Taiwan decided to implement curricular and instructional reforms in elementary and junior high school education. One of the most significant changes is that English courses are officially introduced in grade 3 (age 9) with two 40-minute lessons per week (Ministry of Education, Republic of China, 2010). Since then, learning English has become a popular movement for young learners from the ages of 5 to 12 across the country. Butler (2004) points out that some Asian countries, such as Korea, Taiwan, and Japan, have introduced English language instruction at the elementary school level, with special focus on oral communication skills. Although the officially suggested starting age is 9, most parents want their children to learn English as soon as possible. The assumption of the younger the better in foreign language acquisition is supported by many Taiwanese parents, who believe an early start will help their children to achieve greater profici ency. These factors above contribute to the significant growth in the number of cram schools and private language schools across the country over the last decade. Cram school also known as abuxiban in Taiwan are very common and popular in competitive Asian countries, particularly in Taiwan and Japan. The aim of these schools is to help pupils to enhance their achievement scores (Harnisch, 1994; Oneil Fukumura, 1992; Stevenson Stigler, 1992). In 1999, a report from China Central News, on 6 April 1999, stated that at least more than one quarter of elementary pupils attend private language institutions after school to learn English. Tsai and Kuo (2008) report that there are more than 5,000 cram schools in Taiwan. Most English cram schools offer additional after-school teaching to enhance pupils English ability. In particular, numerous so-called ESL schools aim to help Taiwanese learners to learn English as a Second Language (ESL) through using American elementary textbooks and teaching all subjects, including handwriting, computer, music, social science, reading, math, science, grammar, phonics and writing, in English. They also offer an ESL p rogram to kindergarten children of 3 years old up to students in grade 6 (age 12). In general, kindergarten pupils and grade 1 to 2 learners receive an average of 4 to 5 lessons a day, each 30 minutes long. As for grade 3 to 6 learners, they receive approximately 2 to 3 lessons a day due to their longer elementary school hours. Such ESL schools provide a unique educational context to investigate these ESL English teachers perceptions of classroom assessment and their own classroom assessment practices.

Non Verbal Communication: Bangladesh And Panama

Non Verbal Communication: Bangladesh And Panama This study was conducted to gain a better understanding of students in Second/Foreign language classrooms in Bangladesh and Panama, and their consciousness about Teacher-Student Interaction through Non-Verbal Communication in Bangladesh and Panama and focusing on the importance and the role in building student motivation in Second/Foreign language classrooms. Since English is a second language in Bangladesh and Panama, the result will suggest how important it is for teachers to be aware of their nonverbal communication in classrooms to interact with the students in triggering their motivation. Chapter I INTRODUCTION English is a global language and is recognized the key means of international communication. Crystal (1997) and Nunan (2003) suggest that as a general consensus, English has become an international language, one that is widely used in higher education, business, technology, science and the internet. In Bangladesh and Panama, English is a second language for the majority of people, and therefore it is important to consider both the teaching and learning of English in both nations; hence the conduct of this study. In Panama, Spanish is the official language, spoken by over 90% of Panamanians, but English is recognized as the official second language. Bengali is spoken by majority of the people in Bangladesh and English is the official second language. Since I had access to both countries during the writing of this Thesis, it was possible to conduct a comparative study of the teaching and learning of English in both, despite the many cultural and linguistic differences, not to mention the vast geographic distance between the two. It is hoped that the findings of this study will contribute to illustrate the importance of nonverbal communication in the teaching of English as a second language despite the differences between the peoples of the two nations. Rather than the differences, it is in fact the similarities that we share as humans which enable more effective means of teaching and learning a foreign language. In many countries around the world, the Communicative Language Teaching (CTL) method has taken prominence for the pedagogy of learners of English as a second language. In Bangladesh, CTL has been emphasized since 1998 (Billah 2012), and since then, the teaching of English has continued to follow this method to the extent possible. CTL emphasizes the importance of interaction as the means and the ultimate goal of teaching a foreign language; this is in stark contrast to the more bookish methods of the past where printed literature and non-interactive classroom instruction were exclusively utilized to teach English. With the emphasis now given to CTL as an efficient means of language teaching, a more interactive approach to the teaching of English as a second language has taken center stage globally. In second language classrooms, the teacher plays an important role in the achievement of successful learning. One of the most important features of a language classroom is that the lesson is an arena of human interaction with different personalities, motives, and expectations at play. The learning atmosphere, emotional climate, group cohesion, and enjoyment of being in the group are fundamental issues for motivation. In order to achieve an interactive atmosphere, we need an ambiance and relations among individuals that promotes a desire for interaction (Rivers 1987). Further, Rivers (1987) notes that [Interaction is] an affective, temperamental matter, not merely a question of someone saying something to someone, stressing the importance of converting the classroom into real-life contexts where the class experience mimics reality. Communication can be defined as the sharing of ones thoughts and emotions with others, either verbally or nonverbally. Verbal communication includes spoken words and sounds, and the volume and tone used to express them. In contrast, nonverbal communication is unspoken, and includes facial expressions, body movements, gestures, observance of personal space, and eye contact (Wiki). In an era of communicative language teaching, interaction is, in fact, at the heart of communication; it is what communication is all about (Brown, H.D. 1994). The question is how should one interact in the classroom as a teacher? What forms or means of interaction should one use to keep students motivated to continue the learning process? Verbal communications are obviously utilized, with words carefully chosen by teachers so that students can better understand English. But non-verbal communication is equally important and in classrooms we tend to ignore this factor. Non-verbal communications play an important role in interaction between a teacher and a student. In the classroom, a teacher and student, both consciously and subconsciously send and receive nonverbal cues several hundred times a day (Billah). Teachers should be aware of nonverbal communication in the classroom for two basic reasons: 1) to become better receivers of students messages and, 2) to gain the ability to send positive signals that reinforce students learning. In the process, teachers simultaneously become more skilled at avoiding negative signals that stifle a students learning. This study investigates and compares the consciousness of students of two countries, on two different continents, to a teachers interaction through nonverbal communication during the learning of English as a second language. The goal is to highlight the importance of nonverbal communication and the critical role it plays to motivate students as they pursue the learning of a second language, in this case, English. Research Questions and Methods The main basis of this study started with class observation. After assessment of the observations made, an appropriate questionnaire was designed to verify my implication on the topic ending with teachers view on my topic. The aim of this study is to find out how conscious students are about teachers interaction through nonverbal communication in second language classrooms at universities in Dhaka, Bangladesh versus Panama City, Panama, to identify the teachers most frequently used nonverbal behaviors, and to find out its role in motivating students. The paper will also investigate teachers views on nonverbal communication in the classroom. The main questions of focus were as follows: Are teachers in Bangladesh and Panama aware of their nonverbal behavior through interaction in their classrooms? Are students in Bangladesh and Panama aware of the types of nonverbal communication they receive from their teachers in classrooms? If yes, what type of nonverbal behaviors they like to see in their teachers? What are the most used ones? How significant is the role of teachers-student interaction through nonverbal communication? This will determine whether both teachers and students think that nonverbal communication affects interaction. If so, how does nonverbal communication affect student motivation? The opinion of students was assessed through Questionnaire. Is nonverbal communication playing a significant role in our classrooms as it is claimed internationally? This will determine whether teachers from both countries, Bangladesh and Panama, can identify the importance of nonverbal communication as well as the types of nonverbal behaviors they present in classrooms. It will also verify how the students react to certain types of nonverbal communication. How conscious should teachers be in their nonverbal behavior in Second/Foreign classroom? This will focus more on how teachers think of their personal performance in the classroom through nonverbal communication, how appropriate is the teacher in using body language, gesture, expressions etc., and how much students are affected by a teachers performance in the classroom. In what ways is Bangladesh and Panama similar and/or different in usage of nonverbal communication in classrooms? How does nonverbal communication express cultural values? What suggestions can be provided for Academia? Chapter II LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter will deal with the definition and major components of nonverbal communication. It will also discuss the importance of teacher-student interaction through nonverbal communication which ultimately triggers the motivation to learn. (2.1) Nonverbal Communication Educators, psychologists, anthropologists and sociologists define body language or nonverbal communication as communication without words. It includes overt behaviors such as facial expressions, eye contact, touching and tone of voice. It can also be less obvious, however, as through dress, posture and spatial distance. The most effective communication occurs when verbal and nonverbal messages are in sync, creating communication synergy (Wiki). A teacher can bring in positive reinforcement through the usage of body language in second language classrooms. Ralph Waldo Emerson and Mae West both understand the importance of body language. The tell tale body is all tongues, Emerson once said, while West famously quoted, I speak two languages, body and English. It is just as important for teachers to be good nonverbal communication senders as it is for them to be good receivers (students). Teachers express enthusiasm, warmth, assertiveness, confidence and displeasure through facial express ions, vocal intonation, gestures and use of space etc. However, when teachers exhibit verbal messages that conflict with nonverbal messages, students become confused, which in turn can affect their interaction; hence, motivation. How does a teacher keep students motivated to learn a second language? In an ideal classroom, students pay attention, ask questions and want to learn. They do their assignments without complaint and study without being forced to do so. However, oftentimes this is not the reality. A teacher constantly has to work to motivate or keep students triggered to do their work. One such factor is non-verbal communication, which plays a role in triggering motivation so that students are not forced but rather feel like they want to learn. For instance, Morgan (1997) achieved a high level of motivation in the teaching of intonation by bringing in the learners social and cultural attitudes. The main types of nonverbal communication used by a teacher to interact in classrooms in foreign language are the Kinesics (the study of body language), the Vocalics (the study of the use of tone, pitch and volume of the voice), the Chronemics (the study of the use of time), the Oculesics (the study of the use of eyes), the Proxemics (the study of the use of spatial distance), and the Haptics (the study of the use of touch). YOU NEED TO CITE THE LITERARTURE WHERE YOU GOT THIS INFORMATIONIT IS NOT YOUR ORIGINAL WORK The focus will be on the first five categories of nonverbal communication and lastly discussion on use of Haptics will be mentioned separately. Emphasis on teachers nonverbal responses needs to reinforce in classroom processes for three specific areas. First, nonverbal communication can be used to reinforce cognitive learning. Second, nonverbal communication reinforces emotional connections between the student and the teacher. Finally, nonverbal communication sets an organizational tone for the classroom-i.e. with respect to the management of the classroom. The use of non-verbal communication in the management of the classroom has implications for how conflict can be managed. The focus of this paper will be solely on the observation and surveys of students. It will focus on the types of nonverbal communication that can be used to motivate students in second/foreign language classrooms in Bangladesh and Panama. My research will concentrate on the use of body language, gestures, use of tone and pitch, use of eye-contact, and use of spatial distance. These are the factors that I observed in both the countries and believe will support my hypothesis. (2.2) Significance of Nonverbal Communication The classroom is a setting where a great deal of nonverbal communication (ex: through behavior) takes place (Galloway, 1979; Smith, 1979; Thompson, 1973; Woolfolk Brooks, 1985). Acceptance and understanding of ideas and feelings by teacher and student, encouraging and criticizing, silence and questioning are all manifested through communication of nonverbal behaviors. What does classroom teaching have to do with communication in general and nonverbal communication in particular? Most educators would probably have an immediate response to only the first part of the question. From his anthropological perspective, Montagu (1967) stated that the main purpose of education is to teach the art of communication since the child learns to become human through communication. Most of us would agree that the nonverbal is an essential part of their communicative act. Victoria (1970) commented further: The process of education essentially is a communication process, not only in that sense of trans mitting knowledge, but more particularly as it relates to interpersonal communication behaviors. Accordingly, the teaching process may be described as an interactive flow of information or communications which results consecutively in the processing of the information, decision-making, and learning which may be cognitive, affective, or psychomotor in nature. Because of the central role played by communication in educational practice, several writers have suggested that communication skills be taught to students or teachers and that nonverbal training be an essential part of this instruction (e.g., Gray, 1973; Hennings, 1975; Rezmierski, 1974). Similarly, Victoria (1971) proposed that teachers should study qualitative aspects of the affective domain so as to better understand students. The latter suggestion seems most appropriate in view of Davitzs (1964) pioneering work which demonstrated that emotional meanings could be communicated accurately in a variety of nonverbal media and th at nonverbal emotional communication is a stable, measurable phenomenon. AGAIN, I DONT THIS SECTION IS YOUR ORIGINAL WORK à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ CITE YOUR SOURCES à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ THE FLOW OF THE WRITING DOES NOT SEEM IT IS YOUR OWN. The need to make teachers explicitly aware of nonverbal facets of communication has been stressed by a number of researchers (e.g, Galloway, Koch, Montag; Ostler Kranz). In part, these declarations seem to be reactions against the usual emphasis on verbal classroom processes and the almost total neglect of ever-present nonverbal behaviors. It has been reported often that teachers talk too much and that classroom teaching conforms to the rule of two-thirds (i.e., someone is talking for two-thirds of the total class time and two-thirds of that talking is done by the teacher). However, whether teachers are talking or not, they are always communicating. Their movements, gestures, tones of voice, dress and other artifacts, and even their ages and physiques are continuously communicating something to the students. In like manner, students are continuously communicating with their teachers, a point too often missed by teachers relying solely on the verbal message for informational purposes . Hopkins (1974) found that teachers with a more positive view of humanity used nonverbal communicative acts which encouraged student involvement in classroom interaction, while teachers with a negative view of humanity tended to use nonverbal communicative acts which discouraged student involvement. In summary, the significant role played by nonverbal communication in classroom processes has been emphasized. The argument has been made that interaction (communication) underlies teaching, that the nonverbal domain is an essential part of communication, and that many teachers display too little awareness of nonverbal behavior in their teaching practice. (2.3) Importance of Teacher-Student Interaction In order to succeed, the teacher has to adopt a more interactive approach in the classroom. For instance, according to Prodromou (1991), a good teacher, among other qualities, is someone who is friendly, one of the students, and genuine in dialogues. She/he tries to communicate, believes in students, makes students believe in themselves, asks for student opinions, does the lesson together, and talks about his/her life. One such factor is the level of course interaction. Laurillard, a theorist (1997) suggested that student-teacher interaction is a key component in academic learning. The study of nonverbal communication indicates that the teacher brings more to the classroom than knowledge of subject matter and verbal fluency. Birdwhistell has tried to codify the language of body expression. In his famous work on body language he stated, There is a language of body expression and motion which is as ordered and structured as the language we speak. Like the language we speak it is made up in pieces of structure which can be assembled to form orderly sequences of message material which others trained in the same code can translate and respond to in kind. Like Birdwhistell, almost all eminent linguists believe that the success of both the student and the teacher depend upon the effective communication between them in the class. That is through interaction. Stevick (1982) points out that the body language of the teacher is the most important thing in the class. Addressing the teacher community he wrote, it is the way you use your eyes, the distance you stand from your students, the way you touch or refrain from touching them-all of these unnoticeable things in the class carry important signals which create a profound effect on your students feelings of welcome and comfort with you. Balzer, in his research on classroom communication, reported that approximately 75% of classroom management behavior was nonverbal. Similarly, Smith noted that teachers nonverbal behaviors are for students the signs of the psychological state of the teacher and so should not be taken lightly. Galloway (1980) believed that the use of paralanguage in the classroom encourages the speakers and consequently the people in the classroom will show increased desire to transmit a message and will thereby hold the listeners attention better. (2.4) Teacher-Student Interaction through Nonverbal Communication to Trigger Motivation The study of the nonverbal communication of the teacher is to be more important (in the classroom) due to three reasons according to Kristin Hammond. First, the teacher acts as an artist whose performance in the classroom is usually observed minutely by his/her audience (the students). If his/her body language is positive the students enjoy the lecture and consequently retain and remember most part of it. On the other hand, if the body language of the teacher is negative the students do not enjoy the classroom experience and feel discomfort uneasiness and lose most of the lecture taught. Secondly, the function of nonverbal communication is to supplement the verbal messages (of the speaker) by repetition, substitution, complementation and regulation. If the nonverbal signals of the resource person (the Teacher) are appropriate the student gets maximum benefit from the lecture but if the nonverbal cues are contradictory the students usually get confused and in some situations are comp letely lost. Thirdly, a teacher is a role model (of the target language) for many students and they try to copy his/her body language, as there is no native speaker model available in many Bangladesh and Panama universities. It is motivation that produces effective second language communicators by planting in them the seeds of self-confidence. Therefore, the nonverbal communication of the teacher in these universities is more important for motivating the second language learners. Chapter III COUNTRY AND CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES (3.1) Bangladesh Perspective In Bangladesh, the importance of English language is growing day by day. Students who spend four years in university need to learn English to enhance their career for the future. With the growing population, English is becoming more demanding than ever. We can see, in businesses, hospitals, buying house, corporate world and in education, English is needed. We see many institutions where classes are provided for those who are working to enhance their English; coaching center to learn English is growing by the number and we see training seminars for teachers to become better in their teaching. The growing number of private universities is making it necessary to learn English. But, the question remains, How do we motivate students to learn English? What elements enhance students performance? By keeping these questions in mind, teachers nonverbal communication during interaction with students plays an important role in second/foreign language classrooms. The lack of nonverbal communication is making interaction between teacher and student difficult. Students tend to take the classes lightly and later in the long run have to take more classes for their careers to learn English properly; hence their communication lacks the necessary expression or voice in them. (3.2) Panama Perspective Panama is a country where 95% of the population speaks Spanish. Like Bangladesh, English is a second language here as well. The university has extended English classes for the students where most of the teachers are natives. In Panama, teachers reflect on verbal communication more than nonverbal as well. But students are affected by the paralanguage in the classroom, hence resulting in lack of interest in the classes which affects them later on. As a teacher, the need of the understanding and usage of nonverbal is vital in keeping students motivated in the classroom because majority of the students in Panama come from a Spanish background. Their language has very few words which are interchanged with English words. In contrast, in Bangladesh, English words in Bangladesh, words like card, office, school, class, and many more are used by almost 98% of the population. So English words are perhaps more foreign to native Spanish speakers than they may be to native Bengali speakers. The need to understand students perception of teachers nonverbal communication in classroom in this instance is even more paramount. Chapter IV DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS (4.1) Universities in Bangladesh Class Observation: Two classes were observed before conveying the survey to the students. Based on my observations, I decided to concentrate on the nonverbal communication used by teachers. The major goal of this survey is to determine how conscious students are about the interaction between teacher and student through nonverbal communication in the classroom. The Survey: The questionnaire composed of two parts where both parts involve about nonverbal communication of the teachers but there were two main differences. First, in the first option there were four choices; (a) Totally Agree, (b) True up to some extent, (c) Totally Disagree and (d) I dont know. The students have to select one of them and this way we will understand how conscious students are about their teachers nonverbal interaction. Secondly, the first portion generally asked about the liking of the students which was directly linked to students motivation and involvement in the class. In the second part of the questionnaire the queries were directly related to the retention of the lectures with the nonverbal communication of their teachers. The second survey provides only two options of Yes and No and in this way the assessment will be definite. Later, both of them were combined to provide a coherent result of the findings. The results are as follows: Bangladesh Participants: The questionnaires were distributed among American International University students and Stamford University students, 15 students from each university participated in filling out the questionnaires. The entire 30 participants native language is Bengali and it consisted of 19 males and 11 females. The response of students to a teachers use of body language and gestures is summarized in Table 1. The above data shows that students at universities in Bangladesh are aware of nonverbal communication in their classrooms. The assessment clearly shows that 18 out of 30 students at the two universities, which results in an average of 60% of the students, feel strongly motivated when teachers nod their head in class. The remaining 12 students, or 40%, responded that it was true to some extent that the teachers head nodding results in motivation. This data is represented in Figure 1. 21 out of 30 students agreed that teachers who smile at their students in the classroom encourage them to be confident in their class, averaging at 70%, while the remaining 9 student, or 30%, answered that this was true to a some extent. Figure 2 summarizes this finding. A teachers happy mood creates a good atmosphere in second language classroom with a high percentage from both the universities, where 27 out of 30 students answered Totally Agree in the survey, averaging at 90%, while the remaining 10% answered true to some extent. This proves the point that amongst students at universities in Bangladesh, non-motivation results when a teacher does not enter the classroom with a good mood. See Figure 3 for a graphical representation of this data. Finally, a teachers raised finger embarrasses students in Bangladesh, where 23 out of 30 students, averaging at 78% conveyed that their level of confidence goes down when teachers raise their finger while asking them a question, Figure 4. The students response to the use of various supra segmental features of language such as pitch, tone, rhythm and volume by the teacher is summarized in Table 2. In both universities in Bangladesh, 27 out of 30 students with an average of 90% survey result shows that monotonous tone creates boredom in classroom and 3 students answered true to some extent with an average of 10%, Figure 5. 20 out of 30 students with an average of 66% totally agreed to the question that variation is tone, pitch and volume is liked, while 10 students, or 34%, answered true to some extent, Figure 6. The students response about the use of time by their teachers is shown in Figure 7. The result of this question shows that, 23 out of 30 students averaging at 77% of the students in Bangladesh in University take teachers casually if they are not regular in their classroom. As teachers for second language learner, one must remember that English is a second language for the students and if the teachers are not motivated to be regular in their classes students will not be either. Second, 14 out of 30 students with an average of 47% answered that they look at their wrist watches if a teacher takes over-time in the classroom. The students response about the use of eye contact of their teachers is shown in Figure 8. The above result shows that, 25 out of 30 students with an average of 83% of the students feel encouraged when teachers use eye-contact. Visual contact with the instructor appears related to students comprehension. Furthermore, visual contact with the instructor increases attentiveness, which in turn triggers motivation. Second, 18 out of 30 students said that cold stares embarrass students with an average of 60%. The students response about the movement of their teachers in a classroom is shown in Figure 9. The result shows that 23 students totally agreed upon with an average of 78% that the students in Bangladesh feel teachers movement in the classroom keep them alert, which shows that students are affected by teachers use of space. Whereas, around 21 out of 30 students agreed with an average of 70% that teacher standing still creates laziness in students. Data Analysis: The above findings clearly state that our students in second language classrooms are conscious about teachers nonverbal communication used to interact, which triggers motivation. Smiling and nodding head in a classroom plays a vital role in universities in Bangladesh when interacting with students because the most dominant and reliable features of the face provide a constant channel of communication. They received high percentage of 60% and 90%. That is why when teachers interact there face provides shifty and evasive; convey hate, fear, and guilt; or express confidence, and support. 90% of the student agreed that by using a dull tone in the classrooms, students think that the teacher is tired or boring. But as teachers of second language, one must remember that we are providing a class time of 75 minutes and within that time frame a teacher must provide an interactive speech where students will be encouraged to convey their views and ideas about the topic. Eye behavior seems to be particular importance which resulted in 83% and it is used to indicate whether one is open to communication. This can be observed when a teacher asks the class a question: students who think they know the answer will generally look at the teacher, while students who do not will usually try to avoid eye contact and in these cases cold stares must be avoided. Eye contact give provides a feeling of confidence and assurance from teacher. Therefore, plays an important role in second language classrooms. In Bangladesh, sometimes classrooms are small. If the teacher wishes to dominate the interaction in the classroom, the traditional arrangement is probably the best because students are seated side by side and the primary focal point is the teacher; thus, most interaction will go from teacher to student and from student to teacher. But in some cases, it is important to move around in the classroom to keep the attention of the students when teacher convey a message. 78% of the students feel that when a teacher moves in the classroom they feel motivated to listen. Lastly, a regular teacher is seen as a teacher who is passionate (about the course), prepared and is there for the students. 77% of the students agreed upon this factor. On the other hand, students start taking classes casually if the teacher is irregular and hence demotivation factor arises in second language classrooms. Teachers view on Nonverbal Communication being used as a motivation in Bangladesh: Two teachers from American International University and Stamford University participated in the interview questions. Theory of Normalisation of Drugs | Literature Review Theory of Normalisation of Drugs | Literature Review Who Hasnt Tried At Least one? An investigation into normalised recreational drug use in the South West and whether legal controls act as an effective deterrence to illegal drug consumption. Literature review When considering the concepts of normalisation and recreational drug use, it is crucial to first establish what is here meant by these terms in actuality. Often the two phenomena are met with difficulties [i](Parker, Aldridge and Measham 1998), difficulties which form in conflicting theories, what they are defined as and in which social environments they can be correctly used. The following review will be focusing on how historically, the concepts of normalisation and recreational drug use have been adopted into society and to what extent they correlate with one another. Does normalisation simply mean normal? The first development of the term normalisation was uncovered in Denmark throughout the 1950s, in order to create a normal living standard for individuals with forms of disabilities, disadvantages and those who were generally considered to lead a life in poor living conditions [ii](Emerson, 1992). The concept came in form as the piece of Danish legislation introduced by Niels Erik Bank-Mikkelsen called the [iii]1959 Mental Retardation Act, its political aims were to fundamentally change perspectives towards those with intellectual difficulties, hopefully resulting in the group becoming normalised and attaining the same community based rights as those without disabilities, such as work, clothing, housing and education. Since the concept was first pioneered in the 1950s, the term, after being translated into English by Dr. Bengt Nirje, has been widely adopted and revisited in many diverse fields of service, academia and literature but mostly referred to as a principle and theory [iv](N irje 1969; [v]Wolfensberger, 1972). Characteristically, normalisation refers to specific a group of individuals social behaviours (particularly deviants), and those behaviours becoming a part of the wider societys social norms, which become as close to day to day conventional life as is possible, ranging from lifes rhythms and routines to economic and environmental standards (Nirje 1969; Parker,[vi] Williams, Aldridge 2002). After making an impact of American professionals, Dr. Wolfensberger introduced the practice of normalisation into the United States in 1970. Wolfenberger made the concept of normalisation into a social relation by pointing out its obvious connections with other social concepts such as the labelling theory, but he also recognised that in fact the differences within disabled groups were still present despite the strive for social equality, this was later accepted by Emerson who pointed out that the concepts were transferable to any devalued social group or those a t risk of being a devalued social group [vii](Emerson and McGill, 1989). This then, as previously mentioned, allowed for other social sciences to adapt and investigate the theory in their specialised fields, where here specifically is relevant, Criminology and drugs. Drug use: The differences between recreation and addiction. Throughout the post-war decades there have been numerous drug epidemics, such as the speeding mods in the sixties to tripping hippies during the seventies through to a new wave of heroin users in the 1980s (Parker, Aldridge and Measham, 1998). Whilst all were thought of as a form of ephemeral drug taking, they were also known as behaviours found in the minority groups of the populations, and almost always referred to as deviant. But, a social change of massive proportions emerged throughout the nineties that was unparalleled to the previous decades. The nineties saw an unprecedented surge in drug taking amongst more than just the minority groups, much more. In fact, the dramatic rise in drug trying was among those considered ordinary and conventional. ([viii]Aldridge, Parker and Measham, 1999; [ix]Ashton and Camali, 1995). A significant dominance in the development of the theory known as the normalisation thesis is that of Howard Parker and Colleagues (1995). They suggest that the previous links between illicit drugs use and deviant behaviour no longer exist with regards to crime. They argue that it has instead become a part of the core youth culture in the United Kingdom, which has essentially stemmed from our freedom of choices and consumerism/consumption habits. This evokes the idea that drug use is no longer problematic, but recreational. The central argument here is that globalisation has created issues for a post-modernistic Britain in the form of an increased tolerance for drug use, which has been influenced by consumption. This meaning a basic phenomenon here of supply and demand, but of an illegal nature, the demand for drugs theoretically being higher due to perhaps more disposable income, contributed by the ease of accessibility and sale. Thus, the freedom of recreational drug consumption is inevitably begun. This specific literature is one that spurred and encouraged the idea for the research in this dissertation. Much like the thesis here, the research in this document adopts the same rationales or assumptions but with a specific focus on people between the ages of 18-45 whom reside in the South West. In Parker, Williams and Aldridge (2002) they measure sensible recreational drug use by adopting the normalisation theory. The research only includes specific drugs which are considered recreational. The research defines sensible drug use here by expressing that using sensibly does not include using drugs on a regular daily basis, as this can qualify, by definition, as addiction (Parker et al., 1998). They also specify that using a combination of any drugs at one given time does not equate to sensible either. The drugs that were included in this research were Cannabis, Ecstasy, Amphetamines and LSD. The study in this document will also include a measurement of recreation al use of these specific drugs along with others, in order to identify of which is most common, what other drugs most users have tried, followed by an evaluation into their reasonings why, and further analysis with regards to where the consumption takes place. As previously touched on, in Parker, Aldridge and Measham (1995) their investigation identified the gradual progressive nature of drug use from the sixties, seventies and eighties and how they differed from the nineties whereby the stereotypical drug user was no longer considered to be a part of a deviant subculture. Instead, they were found to be a part of mainstream youth culture that was said to be brought on by the shift in music at the time known as rave. The so-called dance music culture, inspired by DJs globally [x](Forsyth, Barnard and McKeganey, 1997), became normalised throughout society, which encouraged youths to party hard and indulge in party experiences. The nature of their consumption pursuits untimately led to the introduction if many exciting and experience enhancing drugs, such as ecstasy [xi](Pham and Puzantian, 2001). As is already known, since the nineties there has since been an ongoing culture of drug use amongst not only youths, but Britons in general, which still closely relates to the unprecedented nineties but instead of it just being rave related, it is now related to any experience where drugs could be seen as an enhancement. The core objective of this study aims to evaluate these theorys, as to whether Britons are taking drugs recreationally to feel good/enhance experiences, with a focus on the South West. Due to the influx of drug use becoming more substantial than ever in British history during the nineties, 1996 saw the Home Office begin recording trends on the phenomenon through the Crime Survey of England and Wales. In 1996, the percentages of drug users recorded amongst 16-24 year olds in the previous year, was an astonishing 30% that rose to 33% In 1999. This age group was considerably higher than the general population as a whole, which was recorded to be about 11% at the time. Since then though, the recorded figures show a relatively flat movement with no major rise or falls in percentages amongst the 16-59 age group. In comparison, the 16-24 age group figures have been dropping at a steady rate since 1996. However, 2013-2014 did see the slight increase of 4% compared to the previous year, this figure has remained around the same presently as last years percentages being around 18%. The year 2015-2016 shows that 1 in 12 (8.4%) of adults aged 16-59 had taken a drug in the last year, which equates to around 2.7 million people. The proportion of adults ages 16-24 taking drugs in the last year more than doubled the proportion of the relative 16-59 group. Despite the these disproportionate figures though, the Home Office Drug Misuse findings state that Over the last five years there has been some fluctuation in this series, but is likely that the recent trend in drug use among 16 to 24 year olds is relatively flat. However, the long-term trend is downward; the 2015/16 estimate is statistically significantly lower compared with 10 years ago (25.2% in the 2005/06 survey year) and with the start of the time series in 1996 (29.7%). These statistics essentially suggest a significant fall in most drug users. These figures, while they are dropping, are still considerably high. And so, the normalisation theory had been introduced, attempting to remove the stigmatism attached to young people who take drugs recreationally and move away from the idea that they are devia nts and/or involved in crimes. Another objective of the research in this dissertation using survey analysis is to identify young people in the South Wests perceptions of drug use figures compared to actual figures, and whether they match what is going on. Do they feel as though recreational drug use is dropping, staying the same or increasing? In Muncie 1999, it is identified that trends in drug use have changed from the addiction of drugs such as cocaine and heroin, to more leisurely drugs used by the modern youths in leisurely activities, they include, alcohol, cannabis and ecstasy. Although being under the influence when taking these drugs which may lead to crime, this could be considered out of character, and not creating a crime orientated lifestyle which harder drugs and addiction may create such as heroin [xii](Inciardi, 1979). An example could be the criminal behaviours that addiction to drug class A users may undergo such as theft, mugging, and burglary to fuel their habits and addictions [xiii](Parker and Newcombe, 1987). However, when a young person leisurely uses recreational drugs such as ecstasy or cannabis, this does not necessarily result in in person to undergo criminal activities or offences. A clear activist for such statements is Professor David Nutt who was the chair of the Advisory Council on the Misu se of Drugs, in 2009 however, [xiv]The Independent newspaper released an article stating that the professor was asked to resign because of his claims about illegal drugs such as ecstasy, LSD and cannabis being of less harm to human health than products legally available to the public like alcohol and tobacco. Although Parker et al. (1998) does not fully undertake postmodernism as structural inquality still exists, they believe that young peoples behaviour and choices have changed towards drugs due to a post-modern society that allows them to consume freely. For example, Mott and Mirrlees-Black (1993) found that the number of 16-19 year olds using cannabis more than doubled from 1983 to 1991. Normalisation has become an indicator of changes in social behaviour and cultural perspectives, meaning that the opinion about some illicit drugs has changed within the youth culture which in return affects their social behaviour as they do not think that using the drug is wrong or immoral. However, it could be argued that it is overgeneralizing to assume that all young people see drug use as normal, Dowds and Redfern (1994) found that approximately two-thirds of 12-15 year olds saw taking cannabis as a serious offense. Hunt and Stevens (2004) suggest that the government and media use drug normalisation as the proof for an increased disciplinary regulation and endorse policies as it is viewed to be a drug outbreak that needs to be broken or finished. For example, drug testing has been introduced in some schools to help prevent usage by young people (Craver, 2004). Illicit drug use is frequently associated with the youth culture, Robson (1994) points out that the most common time for using or trying drugs is between the ages of eighteen and twenty-four. It is suggested that this is due to adolescents being the time of experimentation in many aspects of life which can lead to rebellion. Coleman (1992:13) suggests a psychoanalytical-theory of three main reasons why young people and drugs are linked together: adolescence is a time of vulnerabilty as well as being impressionable, of rebellion and non-conformity and the need to be independant by disengaging from family relationships. These changes through adolescence support Colemans sociological theory that youth culture experiment in different social aspects of life, such as subcultures and trends or sexualities and in this case drugs. In relation to the normalisation theory, young people are able to experiment with drugs due to the wide availabilty of them as well as the access young people have to them due to people they know (Barton 2003). References [i] Judith Aldridge, 1998. Illegal Leisure (Adolescence and Society). 1 Edition. Routledge. [ii] Emerson, E., Hastings, R. and McGill, P. (1994). Values, attitudes and service ideology. Severe Learning Disabilities and Challenging Behaviours, pp.209-231. Last Accessed 02/02/20127 [iii] The Mental Retardation Act 1959. [iv] Bengt Nirje (1969). The Normalization Principle and its Human Management Implications. The International Social Role Valorization Journal, Vol. 1(2) 1994 [v] Wolfensberger, Wolf (1972) The Principle of Normalization in Human Services. Toronto, National Institute on Mental Retardation. [vi] Parker, H., Williams, L. and Aldridge, J. (2002). The Normalization of Sensible Recreational Drug Use. British Sociological Association, [online] 36(4). Available at: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/003803850203600408 [Accessed 21 Mar. 2017]. [vii] Emerson, E. and McGill, P. (1989). Normalization and Applied Behaviour Analysis: Values and Technology in Services for People with Learning Difficulties. Behavioural Psychotherapy, [online] 17(02), p.101. Available at: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/behavioural-and-cognitive-psychotherapy/article/div-classtitlenormalization-and-applied-behaviour-analysis-values-and-technology-in-services-for-people-with-learning-difficultiesdiv/B8983BB5960551C5C256887B92289B64 [Accessed 18 Mar. 2017]. [viii] Aldridge, J., Parker, H. and Measham, F. (1999) Drug Trying and Drug Use Across Adolescence. DPAS Paper 1, London: Home Office. [ix] Ashton, C. and Kamali, F. (1995). Personality, lifestyles, alcohol and drug consumption in a sample of British medical students. Medical Education, [online] 29(3), pp.187-192. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2923.1995.tb02828.x/abstract [Accessed 21 Mar. 2017]. [x] Ashton, C. and Kamali, F. (1995). Personality, lifestyles, alcohol and drug consumption in a sample of British medical students. Medical Education, [online] 29(3), pp.187-192. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2923.1995.tb02828.x/abstract [Accessed 21 Mar. 2017]. [xi] Pham, J. and Puzantian, T. (2001). Ecstasy: Dangers and Controversies. Pharmacotherapy, [online] 21(12), pp.1561-1565. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1592/phco.21.20.1561.34474/abstract [Accessed 23 Mar. 2017]. [xii] Inciardi, J. (1979). Heroin Use and Street Crime. Crime Delinquency, [online] 25(3), pp.335-346. Available at: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/001112877902500304 [Accessed 23 Mar. 2017]. [xiii] Parker, H. and Newcombe, R. (1987). Heroin Use and Acquisitive Crime in an English Community. 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